Old School Hack

Old School Hack Old School Hack Old School Hack By Maeve Maddox Before computing added new meanings to the word hack, the meaning I associated most commonly with it was â€Å"a writer who churns out unimaginative writing for hire.† This use of the word hack derives from the horse rental industry. Hack is the shortened form of hackney, a word that entered English from French haquenà ©e, â€Å"a small horse suitable for ordinary riding.† In The Canterbury Tales (c.1368), Chaucer describes the Canon’s Yeoman as riding â€Å"a dapple-gray hackney.† From meaning a type of horse, hackney came to mean a rented horse. Because hired horses were overworked, hackney and hack came to mean any person employed in servile, tedious, and tiring work. As an adjective, hackney meant â€Å"worn out by indiscriminate or vulgar use.† One could speak of â€Å"a hackney proverb† or â€Å"a hackney plot.† In modern English, the adjective with this meaning is hackneyed: His [Dreiser’s] hackneyed and clichà ©d diction occurs frequently when he is not engaged in a form of indirect discourse, as in his description of the New York theatre district. By the 18th century, the noun hackney had been shortened to hack and could mean either â€Å"a hired horse† or â€Å"a hired carriage.† In the United States, hack is still used as a word for taxicab. By the 1770s, hack had taken on the meaning of â€Å"a literary drudge, who hires himself out to do any and every kind of literary work; hence, a poor writer, a mere scribbler.† It is still used with this sense by speakers who grew up before the word became associated with computing: There is hack fiction all over the best seller list so nothing new there. [James] Patterson belongs in his own category, reserved for the hacks committed to hacking every day. [Peter] Brown is a lesser hacker. Journalists have long been referred to as hacks because they must produce daily content on a variety of subjects. The application of the word hack to prolific, high-earning novelists scorned by literary critics has produced a backlash against the pejorative use of the word hack. Writing in The Guardian, David Barnett demands â€Å"Whats wrong with being a hack?† He reminds readers that literary giant Samuel Johnson declared â€Å"No man but a blockhead ever wrote, except for money.† Barnett sees nothing wrong with being â€Å"prolific, inventive, writing for a populist mass-market readership† and making money for it. Attempts to redefine hack as it applies to writers of fiction can only be wasted effort. The word has become too closely associated with computer use and new terminology is growing up to describe a new kind of writing: â€Å"Hacker journalists† are computer programmers who assume roles as journalists in order to affect social change. Unlike the traditional hack writer who writes only for monetary gain, â€Å"hacker journalists† pursue non-monetary rewards and seek personal fulfillment through moral interventionism. - â€Å"Muckraking in the Digital Age: Hacker Journalism and Cyber Activism in Legacy Media,† by Bret Schulte, and Stephanie Schulte, Mediac, The Journal of New Media and Culture, Volume 9, Issue 1) I guess we’ll just have to come up with a new term for â€Å"an unimaginative writer who will write any kind of drivel for money.† Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Vocabulary category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:50 Handy Expressions About HandsLoan, Lend, Loaned, LentKn- Words in English

Biography of Isabella I, Queen of Spain

Biography of Isabella I, Queen of Spain Isabella I of Spain (April 22, 1451–November 26, 1504) was the queen of Castile and Leà ³n in her own right and, through marriage, became the queen of Aragon.  She  married Ferdinand II of Aragon, bringing the kingdoms together into what became Spain under the rule of her grandson Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor.  She sponsored Columbus voyages to the Americas and was known as  Isabel la Catolica, or Isabella the Catholic, for her role  in purifying the Roman Catholic faith by expelling Jews from her lands and defeating the Moors. Fast Facts: Queen Isabella Known For: Queen of Castile, Leà ³n, and Aragon (became Spain)Also Known As: Isabella the CatholicBorn: April 22, 1451 in Madrigal de las Altas Torres,  CastileParents: King John II of Castile, Isabella of PortugalDied: Nov. 26, 1504 in Medina del Campo, SpainSpouse: Ferdinand II of AragonChildren: Joanna of Castile, Catherine of Aragon, Isabella of Aragon, Maria of Aragon, and John, Prince of Asturias Early Life At her birth on April 22, 1451, Isabella was second in the line of succession to her father, King John II of Castile, following her older half-brother Henry.  She became third in line when her brother Alfonso was born in 1453. Her mother was  Isabella of Portugal, whose father was a son of King John I of Portugal and whose mother was a granddaughter of the same king.  Her fathers father was Henry III of Castile, and his mother was Catherine of Lancaster, the daughter of John of Gaunt (third son of Englands Edward III) and Johns second wife, the Infanta Constance of Castile. Isabellas half-brother became Henry IV, king of Castile, when their father, John II, died in 1454 when Isabella was 3. Isabella was raised by her mother until 1457, when the two children were brought to court by Henry to keep them from being used by opposition nobles. Isabella was well educated.  Her tutors included Beatriz Galindo, a professor at the University at Salamanca in philosophy, rhetoric, and medicine. Succession Henrys first marriage ended in divorce and without children. When his second wife, Joan of Portugal,  gave birth to daughter Juana in 1462, the opposition nobles  claimed that Juana was the daughter of Beltran de la Cueva, duke of Albuquerque. Thus, shes known in history as Juana la Beltraneja. The oppositions attempt to replace Henry with Alfonso failed, with the final defeat coming in July 1468 when Alfonso died of suspected poisoning. historians, however, consider it more likely he succumbed to the plague. He had named Isabella his successor. Isabella was offered the crown by the nobles but she refused, probably because she didnt believe she could maintain that claim in opposition to Henry.  Henry was willing to compromise with the nobles and accept Isabella as his heiress. Marriage Isabella married Ferdinand of Aragon, a second cousin, in October 1469 without Henrys approval. The cardinal of Valentia, Rodrigo Borgia (later Pope Alexander VI), helped Isabel and Ferdinand obtain the necessary papal dispensation, but the couple still had to resort to pretenses and disguises to carry out the ceremony in Valladolid.  Henry withdrew his recognition and named Juana as his heir.  At Henrys death in 1474, a war of succession ensued, with Alfonso V of Portugal, prospective husband of Isabellas rival Juana, supporting Juanas claims. The dispute was settled in 1479 with Isabella recognized as Queen of Castile. Ferdinand by this time had become King of Aragon, and the two ruled both realms with equal authority, unifying Spain. Among their first acts were various reforms to reduce the power of the nobility and increase the power of the crown. After her marriage, Isabella appointed Galindo as tutor to her children. Galindo founded hospitals and schools in Spain, including the Hospital of the Holy Cross in Madrid, and probably served as an adviser to Isabella after she became queen. Catholic Monarchs In 1480, Isabella and Ferdinand instituted the Inquisition in Spain, one of many changes to the role of the church instituted by the monarchs. The Inquisition was aimed mostly at Jews and Muslims who had overtly converted to Christianity but were thought to be practicing their faiths secretly. They were seen as heretics who rejected Roman Catholic orthodoxy. Ferdinand and Isabella were given the title the Catholic monarchs by  Pope Alexander VI in recognition of their role in purifying the faith. Among Isabellas other religious pursuits, she took a special interest in the Poor Clares. an order of nuns. Isabella and Ferdinand planned to unify all of Spain by continuing a long-standing but stalled effort to expel the Moors, Muslims who held parts of Spain. In 1492, the Muslim Kingdom of Granada fell to Isabella and Ferdinand, thus completing the Reconquista. That same year, Isabella and Ferdinand issued an edict expelling all Jews in Spain who refused to convert to Christianity. New World Also in 1492, Christopher Columbus convinced Isabella to sponsor his first voyage of exploration. By the traditions of the time, when Columbus was the first European to encounter lands in the New World, these lands were given to Castile. Isabella took a special interest in the Native Americans of the new lands. When some were brought back to Spain as slaves, she insisted they be returned and freed, and her will expressed her wish that the Indians be treated with justice and fairness. Death and Legacy By her death on Nov. 26, 1504, Isabellas sons, grandsons, and her older daughter Isabella, queen of Portugal, had already died, leaving as Isabellas only heir Mad Joan Juana, who became queen of Castile in 1504 and of Aragon in 1516. Isabella was a patron of scholars and artists, establishing educational institutions and building a large collection of artwork. She learned Latin as an adult and was widely read, and she educated her daughters as well as her sons. The youngest daughter, Catherine of Aragon, became the first wife of Henry VIII of England and mother of Mary I of England. Isabellas will, the only writing that she left, summarizes what she thought were her reigns achievements as well as her wishes for the future. In 1958, the Roman Catholic church began the process to canonize Isabella.  After an exhaustive investigation, the commission appointed by the church determined that she had a reputation of sanctity and was inspired by Christian values. In 1974, she was recognized with the title Servant of God by the Vatican, a step in the process of canonization. Sources Isabella I: Queen of Spain. Encyclopedia Brittanica.Isabella I. Encyclopedia.com.